A History of the Popes Named Leo, Part 1: Introduction, and St Leo I

The ancient Romans had a saying, “Nomen est omen – a name is a sign”, i.e., a presage about the person who bears it. Of course, this is not always or in all ways true; during my very sleepy teenage years, my mother used to joke that Gregory, which derives from the Greek word for “watchful”, was about as inappropriate a name as they come. But it is a tradition solidly grounded in the Sacred Scriptures, where there are many significant names, the greatest of all being, of course, the Holy Name of Jesus, which means “salvation”; and likewise, significant name changes, most notably that of St Peter.

Christ Consigning the Keys to St Peter, 1481/82, by Pietro Perugino, a fresco on the right wall of the Sistine Chapel.

It occurred to me, therefore, that it might be interesting to take a look at the histories of the Popes named Leo, especially since the new Pope himself has said that he chose his new name in reference to Leo XIII, who “in his historic Encyclical Rerum Novarum addressed the social question in the context of the first great industrial revolution. In our own day, the Church offers to everyone the treasury of her social teaching in response to another industrial revolution and to developments in the field of artificial intelligence that pose new challenges for the defense of human dignity, justice and labor.” (If His Holiness declares a crusade against so-called “artificial intelligence”, he shall find no more enthusiastic supporter than myself; and if he decides to expropriate the term “Butlerian jihad” for it, I shall cheer for him all the more loudly.)

First, some statistics. As of last week’s election, Leo is tied with Clement as the fourth most common papal name, behind John, Gregory and Benedict. Five of these, the first through fourth and the ninth, are Saints. Leos V-VIII reigned within a span of about 62 years in the 10th century, the first century in which there is not a single canonized Pope, but three of them for less than a year, VIII for only 82 days. The first eight lived before it was the custom for popes to take a new name upon their election, so Leo was their baptismal name.

Since that custom took root in the mid-11th century, there have been at various points some clear trends in the choices of name. From 1046 to 1145, thirteen of the eighteen Popes were “second of his name”, followed by eight “thirds” out of eleven from 1145 to 1227. From 1644-1774, there were 14 popes, all of whom were called either Innocent, Alexander, Clement, or Benedict. (Three of those names have not been used again since that period.) Seven of the twelve Piuses reigned within the 183-year span from 1775 to 1958, occupying almost 128 of those years.

Leo, however, has never been a fashionable name in that sense. The reign of St Leo IX was a watershed in the history of the papacy, and very much for the good, despite its relative brevity (five years and two months), but his name was not taken again for over four and a half centuries. XI called himself Leo in honor of X, who was related to him, and it then went into abeyance again for almost 220 years.

Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903)

Almost every series I have ever planned for NLM has been revised along the way, but for now, the plan is to cover just Leo I, a titanically important figure, in this article, followed by the next three Sainted Leos, then the four who reigned in the 10th century, Leo IX, the two Medicis (X and XI), and the two in the 19th century, XII and XIII.

St Leo I was Pope from September of 440 to November of 461, the tenth longest reign in the Church’s history. He is one of three popes traditionally known as “the Great”, along with Ss Gregory I (590-604) and Nicholas I (858-67), and with the former, one of only two recognized as Doctors of the Church, although this honor was not accorded to him until 1754. He is the first pope of whose theological writings we possess a really substantial corpus, in the form of nearly 100 sermons and over 140 letters.

He was born in Rome ca. 400, and is said to have been of a Tuscan family, but we know nothing of his early life. As a deacon of the Roman church under the sainted Popes Celestine I (422-32) and Sixtus III (432-40), he was already a very prominent figure, and received letters from St Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, and the great monastic writer John Cassian. It has been speculated that he was the theological mind behind the mosaic program of the basilica of St Mary Major, built in the wake of the Council of Ephesus (431) as Pope Sixtus III’s response to the Nestorian heresy. He was elected to the papacy from the diaconate, a common event in those days, while on a mission as a peace envoy in Gaul.

The central section of the mosaic arch above the altar in the basilica of St Mary Major, ca. 432 AD, with the throne of Christ, (the motif known as an etimasia), Ss Peter and Paul, and the symbolic animals which represent the four evangelists. Below them, the inscription reads “Xystus (the original form of ‘Sixtus’) the bishop for the people of God.” The Apostles are dressed as Roman senators; paired with “the people of God” in the inscription, this makes for a Christian version of the formal name of the Roman state, “the Senate and the Roman people”, a declaration that the Christian polity will outlast the collapsing Roman polity. (Image from Wikimedia Commons by RightLeft Medieval Art, CC BY-SA 4.0.)

Much of St Leo’s preaching and letter-writing was occupied with combatting the various heresies afflicting the Church in his time: not just the on-going Christological controversies, but also Pelagianism, and the Gnostic sects of the Priscillianists, who were growing in Spain, and the Manichaeans. (On discovering the existence of a group of the latter in Rome itself, he made the reception of the chalice at Mass mandatory as a way of chivying them out, since the Manichaeans abominated the consumption of wine.) Unsurprisingly, the authority of the chief of the Apostles, and of his successor, the bishop of Rome, is a frequent theme in his works, and the Roman Rite has traditionally read his sermons in the Divine Office on the various feasts of St Peter.

The Christological controversies entered a new phase during his pontificate with the invention of yet another new heresy in Constantinople. This was the creation of an abbot called Eutyches, which later came to be known as Monophysitism, the denial of the two natures, divine and human, in the one person of Christ. A second council was called together at Ephesus in 449, the infamous “latrocinium – robber-synod”, as Leo called it, in which Flavian, the orthodox patriarch of Constantinople, was subjected to such violence by the heretics that he died of his injuries not long afterwards. (He is venerated by the Church as a martyr.) Leo’s legates (one of whom, his archdeacon Hilarius, would succeed him as Pope) were forcibly prevented from reading his letter to the council, and barely escaped with their lives.

Leo himself immediately declared the council to be null and void, and wrote a letter to the emperor Theodosius II, demanding that he cease interfering with matters that fall under the authority of the Church and its bishops. Two years later, with the coming of a new emperor to the throne, and with the support of his wife, the Empress St Pulcheria, the orthodox faith was vindicated at the fourth ecumenical council, that of Chalcedon, at which Leo’s letter, known as the “Tome to Flavian”, was acclaimed with the words, “Peter has spoken through Leo.”

Contemplating the serene beauty of St Mary Major, it is difficult to imagine that when it was built, the Western Roman Empire was dangerously unstable, and close to its end. Rome had already been sacked by the Visigoths in 410, the first time it had been attacked by a foreign enemy in 800 years. In 452, just one year after the Council of Chalcedon, the Huns under Attila entered Italy, and after successfully plundering Aquileia, Milan and Pavia, turned their sights towards the capital. The military was powerless to oppose them, and it was the Pope to whom the emperor and senate turned to intervene. Leo headed north and encountered Attila near Mantua; the exact words of their meeting have not been recorded, but he was somehow able to persuade the Hun to leave Italy in exchange for a tribute. (A later tradition, repeated in the breviary, and often represented in art, but completely unhistorical, has it that the Apostles Peter and Paul appeared over Leo with swords in their hands as a way of warning Attila off.)

The Meeting of Pope St Leo I and Attila the Hun, 1514, by Raphael and students (more the latter than the former), a fresco within the rooms of Pope Julius II, now part of the Vatican Museums.

When the Vandals arrived at the gates of Rome three years later, Leo was unable to persuade them to leave off as he had Attila, but he did at least get them to refrain from massacring civilians and from burning the city. The remaining six years of his reign were much occupied with repairing the ensuing damage, especially to the churches, and to recovering the captives whom the Vandals had taken with them back to Africa. The Liber Pontificalis records that he donated new silver vessels to the churches of Rome after the sack, and renovated the “Constantinian basilica”, i.e., the cathedral of Rome, not yet called St John Lateran, as well as the basilicas of Ss Peter and Paul, establishing a monastery at the former.

The addition of the words “sanctum sacrificium, immaculatam hostiam” to the Canon is traditionally ascribed to him, but it must be said that the liturgical notices given in the Liber Pontificalis are quite unreliable. The oldest collection of Roman liturgical texts, a manuscript preserved in the capitular library of the cathedral of Verona, contains several prayers which are unmistakably based on his sermons. For this reason, its discoverer, a canon of Verona named Giuseppe Bianchini (1704-64), called it the “Leonine” sacramentary, but it is not a sacramentary, and was certainly compiled rather later than Leo’s time.

Pope St Leo I, by Francisco Herrera the Younger (1627-85)

Despite his importance, devotion to Pope Leo as a saint, both as formally expressed in the liturgy and on a popular level, has never been very prominent, especially in comparison with St Gregory. His feast day is missing from many of the earliest liturgical books of the Roman Rite, he is represented far less often in art, and, as noted above, he was not declared a Doctor of the Church until the mid-18th century. He is, however, one of the few Roman popes celebrated in the Byzantine Rite, on February 18th. In the West, the traditional day of his feast is April 11th, which is believed to be the date of one of the translations of his relics, although there is some uncertainty on this point. In the post-Conciliar Rite, his feast is kept on November 10th, the anniversary of his death. His relics are in an altar in the southwest corner of St Peter’s basilica; those of Ss Leo II, III and IV, who will be the subjects of the next article in this series, are together in the altar right next to it on the left.

The altar of Pope St Leo I in St Peter’s basilica. 

Byzantine Vespers for the 1,700th Anniversary of the Council of Nicea, May 31, in Philadelphia

The Durandus Institute for Sacred Liturgy & Music is pleased to announce its first collaboration on a liturgical event in the Byzantine Rite. On Saturday, May 31 – the eve of the seventh Sunday of Pascha and the Sunday of the Fathers of the First Ecumenical Council – we will be praying a Great Vespers & Lytia at the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic church of St Nicholas in Philadelphia, in celebration of the 1,700th anniversary of the Council of Nicaea. The music will be sung by a men’s ensemble of chanters led by Fr. Herman Majkrzak. The event will also include a sermon preached by Fr. Samuel Keyes, a priest of the Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter. Let both the eastern and western lungs of the Church join in celebration of this anniversary! The church is located at 871 N. 24th St in Philadelphia; the ceremony will begin at 5pm.

The Easter Gospels of the Byzantine Rite

At the Divine Liturgy of Easter Sunday, the Byzantine Rite does not read one of the various Gospel accounts of the Resurrection, but rather, the Prologue of the Gospel of St John, 1, 1-17. (This is three verses longer than the Roman version read at the day Mass of Christmas, and at the conclusion of almost every Mass.) There are several reasons for this choice, which may seem at first rather counter-intuitive.

Greek Evangeliary, date unspecified; Bibliothèque nationale de France, Supplément grec 27, folio 1r. - St John the Evangelist is shown dictating his Gospel to his amanuensis St Prochoros, who was one of the first seven deacons. As can be seen from the folio number, this is at the very beginning of the manuscript; Byzantine Gospel books are traditionally arranged according to the order of their liturgical use, starting with Easter.

The most ancient Christian heresies, such as Docetism and Gnosticism, denied that the flesh of man could be saved, raised from corruption and glorified. The major Christological controversies which followed them, and which were very much more present to the East, all center on one fundamental point, namely, that it is God Himself who accomplishes the salvation of man, not a lesser being created by Him for that purpose, as heretics like Arius taught. A commonly used text in the cycle of hymns for Sunday Orthros expresses this very beautifully: “You came forth from a Virgin, not as an ambassador, nor as an Angel, but as the Lord Himself, incarnate, and saved the whole of me, a man.”

The Resurrection is the culmination of the salvation of the whole of our nature, body and soul together, which are both raised from the dead with Christ. In verse 16, St John says “we have all received of His fullness, and grace for grace”; this fullness is the totality of salvation accomplished in the Resurrection, including the flesh which the Word became, as stated earlier in the Prologue. The last verse, “For the law was given by Moses; grace and truth came by Jesus Christ,” echoes St Paul’s teaching that “Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law,” (Galatians 3, 13), a theme which becomes prominent later on in the Easter season in the Byzantine Rite.

On a practical level, so to speak, the Resurrection is also proclaimed at the Easter vigil, and at Vespers on Easter Sunday. The Gospel of the former is the whole of Matthew 28, where the Roman Rite reads only the first 7 verses. This Gospel begins with the words “But on the evening of the Sabbath”, as the vigil itself was originally celebrated on the evening of Holy Saturday. (In practice, it is often anticipated to the morning.) The first part tells of the women at the tomb meeting first the angel, then the risen Christ Himself (1-10), followed by the bribing of the soldiers who guarded the tomb (11-15). The final part, the meeting of Christ with the eleven disciples in Galilee, contains His commission to “teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit”, a perfect choice for the baptismal ceremony par excellence.

At Vespers of Easter Sunday, St John 20, 19-25 is read; this is the first part of the Gospel which is read in full (verses 19-31) on the following Sunday, known in the East as the Sunday of St Thomas. There are several occasions on which the Eucharistic liturgy and Vespers are celebrated together in a single ceremony, the Easter vigil among them, and therefore a Gospel is read; Easter is the only feast on which a Gospel is read at Vespers apart from the Divine Liturgy. (We may also note here that the Byzantine Rite has a series of eleven Gospels of the Resurrection; these are read in rotation at Orthros of Sunday, and this rotation is hardly ever interrupted.)

The Gospel on Easter Sunday begins a semi-continuous reading of St John which goes on until Pentecost. I say “semi-continuous” because it is occasionally interrupted; the readings follow the order of the Gospel itself closely, but not exactly, and a few passages which figure prominently elsewhere are omitted. St Thomas Sunday is followed by that of the Myrrh-bearers, on which the Gospel is taken from St Mark, 15, 43 – 16, 8. (Mark 16, 1-7 is the traditional Roman Gospel of Easter Sunday itself; in the post-conciliar lectionary, it is assigned to year B.)

A 16th century icon of the Myrrh-bearers at the Tomb. A well-known hymn from Orthros of Holy Saturday says “The angel stood by the tomb and cried to the myrrh-bearing women, ‘Myrrh is fitting for the dead, but Christ has been shown free from corruption.’ ” On the Sunday dedicated to them, this is expanded with the addition of the words, ‘But cry out, the Lord is risen, offering great mercy to the world.’

The period from the Ascension to Pentecost is not counted as part of the Easter season, as it is in the Roman Rite; there are therefore six Sundays of Easter, not seven. The first three being dedicated explicitly to the Resurrection, the three which follow are named for their Gospels, those of the Paralytic (John 5, 1-15), the Samaritan Woman (John 4, 5-42), and the Blind Man (John 9, 1-38). These three form an interesting trait d’union between the two great baptismal feasts, Easter and Pentecost. All three make prominent references to water: the paralytic is waiting to be healed in the pool of Bethsaida, while Christ speaks to the Samaritan woman of the “living water... springing up into life everlasting”, and sends the blind man to wash in the pool of Siloam.

All three also refer prominently to the Law of Moses, and the transition from it to the Law of Christ. The paralytic is told that he is violating the law of the Sabbath by carrying his bed, to which he replies, “He that made me whole said to me, ‘Take up thy bed, and walk.’ ” From ancient times, the Fathers understood this passage as proof that Christians are not required to observe the Law as the Jews did. The Samaritan woman belongs to a sect with which the Jews would not associate, because of their different interpretation of the Law; nevertheless, they receive the revelation of the prophet foretold by Moses. (In John’s Gospel, the Samaritan woman is the first person to whom Jesus says He is the Messiah, in verses 25-26.) The Pharisees claim that Jesus is “not of God” because He healed the blind man on the Sabbath, again, in violation of the Law of Moses; at the end of the Gospel, when Christ asks the blind man, “Do you believe in the son of God”, he confesses “ ‘I believe, Lord,’ and falling down adored him.” (In the Roman rite, a genuflexion is traditionally made at these words, just as it is made on Epiphany when the gentile Magi “falling down adored him.”)

A Christian sarcophagus of the 3rd century, in the Pio-Christian collection of the Vatican Museums. The healed paralytic is shown in the middle, carrying his bed. 

This transition is underscored by the order in which these Gospels are read, with the story of the paralytic in chapter 5 before that of the Samaritan woman from chapter 4.

The pool of Bethsaida is in Jerusalem, the city made holy by the presence of the temple, the center of the Jewish people’s worship under the Law of Moses. The story of the paralytic begins with Jesus going there for “a festival of the Jews”, which Ss John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria both believed was Pentecost, the feast that commemorates the giving of the Law. In the Synoptic Gospels, Christ foretells the destruction of both the Temple and the city; in St John, after the cleansing of the Temple, He proclaims “ ‘Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up.’ … But He spoke of the temple of His body.” (chapter 2, 12-22. In Easter week, this passage is read out of order, on Bright Friday, between parts of chapter 3 on Thursday and Saturday. This is of course one week after Good Friday, the day on which the temple of His body was “destroyed.”)

In John’s Gospel, Christ’s prediction of the destruction of the temple is made to the Samaritan woman. “The woman saith to him, … ‘Our fathers adored on this mountain, and you (i.e. the Jews) say, that at Jerusalem is the place where men must adore.’ Jesus saith to her, … ‘the hour cometh, when you shall adore the Father neither on this mountain, nor in Jerusalem.’ ” The passage ends by saying that many Samaritans believed in Him, a declaration that, with the destruction of the temple, faith in the Jewish Messiah, and hence the worship of God, will pass to the gentile nations that enter the Church.

The blind man is told to wash in the pool of Siloam, which St John himself explains “is interpreted ‘sent’. ” The Greek word used here for “sent – apestalmenos,” is a participle of the verb whose root also makes the word “apostolos – one who is sent.” Although the blind man himself was a Jew, the Fathers understood his blindness to prefigure the blindness of the gentiles, who are illuminated when the Apostles come to them, fulfilling Christ’s commandment to “…teach all nations; baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.” In both East and West, but more prominently in the East, “illuminate” and its cognates are very often used to refer to the Sacrament of Baptism.

Therefore, the three Gospels arranged in this particular sequence demonstrate the passage from the old worship in the Temple under the Law, through the Messiah to the Apostles, and hence to the Church.

A Litany for the New Pope

With our new pope, Leo XIV, we might consider praying this beautiful litany originating from Silverstream Priory, invoking every canonized or beatified pope in the history of the Church. The Litany is divided up according to days, with repeated opening and closing sections.

(At the bottom of this post is a 4-page printed version, if anyone prefers that form instead.)

A Litany of Holy Popes

Lord, have mercy upon us. R/ Lord, have mercy upon us.
Christ, have mercy upon us. R/ Christ, have mercy upon us.
Lord, have mercy upon us. R/ Lord, have mercy upon us.
Christ, hear us. R/ O Christ, hear us.
O Christ, graciously hear us. R/ O Christ, graciously hear us.

O God the Father, of whom all Fatherhood is named,
R/ Have mercy upon us.
O God the Son, Shepherd and Bishop of the souls of men,...
O God the Holy Ghost, strong Defender of Christ's Flock....
O holy Trinity, one God, R/ Have mercy upon us.

Holy Mary, Mother of the Church,
R/ Pray for him.
Holy Mary, Health of the Roman People,
R/ Pray for him.
Holy Mary, conceived immaculate and assumed into heaven.
R/ Pray for him.

Saint Peter, son of Jonas and steadfast confessor of the God-man,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Paul, glorious Preacher of Truth throughout the world,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Peter, firm Rock of faith upon which the Church is built,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Paul, chosen vessel and Apostle of the Gentiles,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Peter, bearer of the Keys that open to us the gates of heaven,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Paul, God's ravening Wolf of the tribe of Benjamin,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Peter, Prince of the Apostles and pastor of Christ's flock,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Paul, most afflicted one for whom Christ' grace was sufficient,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Peter, lowly Fisherman chose to catch souls for Christ,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Paul, willingly burdened with the care of all the Churches,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Peter, who followedst thy Master even to the death of the Cross,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Paul, who bowedst beneath the sword of Nero for Christ's sake,
R/ Pray for him.
O ye holy Apostles, strong pillars of the Church of Rome,
R/ Intercede for him.

On Sundays:

Saint Linus, first successor of Peter and Paul
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Anacletus, baptized by the Apostles,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Clement, preacher of charity and obedience,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Evaristus, faithful son of Bethlehem,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Alexander, disperser of demons with hallowed water,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Sixtus I, singer of the thrice-holy hymn,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Telesphorus, hermit of the Word made Flesh,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Hyginus, wise organizer of the sacred hierarchy,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Pius I, loving shepherd and confounder of the Gnostics,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Soter, saviour of the poor and the exiled,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Eleutherius, liberator from the chains of Montanus,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Victor, follower of Christ risen and victorious,
R/ Pray for him.
All ye holy Popes, who sat on the throne of blessed Peter,
R/ Intercede for him.

On Mondays:

Saint Zephyrinus, good shepherd of the flock of the west,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Callistus, most beautiful disciple of Christ,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Urban, destroyer of the idols of the City,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Pontian, reconciler of schismatics to Christ's Church,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Anterus, slave of Jesus the great Martyr,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Fabian, chosen by the Dove, the blessed Paraclete,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Cornelius, dispenser of God's mercy ot penitents,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Lucius, prudent pastor and exile for Christ,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Stephen, who pouredst out thy blood on Peter's chair,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Sixtus II, maker of peace among the Churches,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Dionysius, dispenser of order and right teaching,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Felix I, defender of the Unity of Christ the God-man,
R/ Pray for him.
All ye holy Popes, who sat on the throne of blessed Peter,
R/ Intercede for him.

On Tuesdays:

Saint Eutychian, hallower of the good fruits of God's earth,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Caius, wise builder of the House of the Church,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Marcellinus, most penitent confessor of the Faith,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Marcellus I, diligent restorer of the persecuted Church,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Eusebius, healer of strife, exiled for Christ's sake,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Miltiades, presider over the Peace of Constantine,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Sylvester I, zealous founder of holy temples,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Mark, diligent collector of the lives of the Saints of God,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Julius, defender of Athanasius and confounder of Arius,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Damasus, poet of the Martyrs and lover of the Scriptures,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Siricius, destroyer of heresy and pacifier of schism,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Anastasius, disciple of the Risen Christ, and rich in poverty,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Innocent, blameless shepherd and protector of Christ's sheep,
R/ Pray for him.
All ye holy Popes, who sat on the throne of Blessed Peter
R/ Intercede for him.

On Wednesdays:

Saint Zosinus, herald of divine grace and scourge of Pelagius,
R/ Pray for him.
Sant Boniface, defender of right order and friend of Augustine,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Celestine, support of Cyril and foe of Nestorius,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Sixtus III, devout client of the Mother of God,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Leo the Great, glorious Doctor of the Lord's Incarnation,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Hilary, successor and confirmer of holy Leo,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Simplicius, stalwart champion of Chalcedon,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Felix III, venerable ancestor of Gregory the Great,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Gelasius I, careful preserver of the sacred liturgy,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Symmachus, raised to the Holy See in a time of strife,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Hormisdas, bridge-builder between East and West,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint John I, imprisoned for Christ by a cruel tyrant,
R/ Pray for him.
All ye holy Popes, who sat on the throne of Blessed Peter,
R/ Intercede for him.

On Thurdays:

Saint Felix IV, champion of divine grace and lover of peace,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Agapetus I, great patron of learning, sacred and secular,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Silverius, son of blessed Hormisdas and exile for the faith,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Gregory the Great, glorious Doctor and Apostle of Britain,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Boniface IV, consecrator of the Pantheon to the Saints of God,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Adeodatus I, good shepherd given by God to Rome,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Martin I, glorious martyr for the Two Wills of Christ,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Eugene I, gentle and loving pastor, well-born of God,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Vitalian, maker of peace in the Church from East to West,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Agatho, scourge of Monothelistes and healer of schism,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Leo II, sweet singer of chant and lover of the poor,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Benedict II, humble student of the Holy Scriptures,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Sergius, servant of the Lamb and his blessed Mother,
R/ Pray for him.
All ye holy Popes, who sat on the throne of Blessed Peter,
R/ Intercede for him.

On Fridays:

Saint Gregory II, defender of icons and enlightener of Bavaria,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Gregory III, beautifier of temples and fortifier of the City,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Zachary, gentle lawgiver and father of nations,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Paul I, builder of sanctuaries and custodian of holy relics,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Leo III, crowner of kings and defender of the Creed,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Paschal I, Shelter of monks and finder of holy Cecilia,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Leo IV, repairer of ruins and bearer of the Cockerel,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Nicholas the Great, defender of the primacy of Peter,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Adrian III, zealous seeker of unity and distributor of bread,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Leo IX, son of Germany and reformer of the clergy,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Gregory VII, monk of Cluny and protector of the episcopate,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Victor III, humble abbot of Monte Cassino,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Urban II, defender of Christians from violent aggression,
R/ Pray for him.
All ye holy Popes, who sat on the throne of Blessed Peter,
R/ Intercede for him.

On Saturdays:

Blessed Eugene III, monk of Claivaux and lover of simplicity,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Gregory X, healer of strife in Christ's broken Body,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Innocent V, son of holy Dominic and lover of unity,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Celestine V, holy hermit and seeker of solitude,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Benedict XI, martyr of peace between nations,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Urban V, great educator and lover of the Holy Rule,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Pius V, new Moses and son of the Most Holy Rosary,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Innocent XI, great pontiff and father of the poor,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Pius IX, herald of the Immaculate Virgin Mother,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Pius X, renewer of all things in Christ Jesus,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint John XXIII, good and humble father of Christians,
R/ Pray for him.
Blessed Paul VI, defender of human life and chaste love,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint John Paul II, ambassador of Christ, the Redeemer of man,
R/ Pray for him.
All ye holy Popes, who sat on the throne of Blessed Peter,
R/ Intercede for him.

Daily conclusion:

Saint Joseph, most chaste Spouse of the Virgin Mother,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Michael, invincible Warrior and Protector of Holy Church,
R/ Pray for him.
Saint Thésèse, herald of merciful Love in the heart of the Church,
R/ Pray for him.
All ye holy Men and Women, Saints of God,
R/ Intercede for him.

We sinners.
R/ Beseech thee to hear us.
That it may please Thee to save and protect thy holy Catholic Church,
R/ We beseech thee to hear us.
That is may please Thee to preserve our Apostolic Lord, the Holy Father N. and all orders of thy Church in holy religion,
R/ We beseech thee to hear us.
That he may be a faithful Pontiff, who shall act according to thy heart and mind,
R/ We beseech thee to hear us.
That both by his life and teaching he may be a wholesome example to the people committed to his charge,
R/ We beseech thee to hear us.
That we, who are thy flock and the sheep of thy pasture, may give thanks to thee for ever in thy heavenly kingdom,
R/ We beseech thee to hear us.

O Lamb of God, that takes away the sins of the world,
R/ Spare us, O Lord.
O Lamb of God, that takest away the sins of the world,
R/ Graciously hear us, O Lord.
O Lamb of God, that takest away the sins of the world,
R/ Have mercy upon us.

O Christ, hear us.
R/ O Christ, hear us.
O Christ, graciously hear us.
R/ O Christ, graciously hear us.

Let Thy hand be upon the man of Thy right hand:
R/ And upon the son of man whom Thou hast confirmed for Thyself.

Let us pray. Almighty and everlasting God, have mercy upon Thy servant, N. , Our Supreme Pontiff, and direct him, according to Thy loving-kindness, in the way of eternal salvation; that, of Thy gift, he may ever desire that which is pleasing unto thee and may accomplish it with all his might. Through Christ our Lord. R/ Amen.

(Composed by a monk from the Silverstream Priory, Stamullen, Co Meath, Ireland. Imprimatur: Michael Smith, Bishop of Meath, 17 Feb. 2015)

St Antoninus of Florence

The Dominican Order celebrates quite a few of its own Saints within a very short period in late April and early May. On the traditional calendar, St Agnes of Montepulciano is kept on April 20th, Peter Martyr on the 29th, Catherine of Siena on the 30th, Pope Pius V on May 5th, and St Antoninus of Florence on the 10th. In the post-Conciliar Rite, Peter Martyr has been moved to June 4th, the day of the translation of his relics; Catherine is on his old day, and Pius on hers, leaving the 5th vacant for St Vincent Ferrer. Antoninus, who was canonized in 1523, remains on his traditional day; he was added to the Roman general calendar in 1683, but removed from the post-Conciliar reform in 1969.

The St Dominic Altarpiece, by Girolamo Romanino, 1545-8. The Saints standing in the lower part of the painting are the Apostle Paul, Thomas Aquinas, Peter Martyr, Dominic, Antoninus, Vincent Ferrer and the Apostle Peter; the two kneeling are Ss Faustinus and Jovita, the patron Saints of Brescia, where the painting was originally commissioned for the Dominican church, now destroyed. (Public domain image from Wikimedia Commons)

He was born in Florence in 1389, and christened “Antonio”, but because of his small stature, was always known by the diminutive form “Antonino”, even in the liturgical books. A famous story is told of how he was admitted into the Order. The prior of Santa Maria Novella, the Dominican house in Florence, was the Blessed John Dominici, one of the leading churchmen of his age, and particularly active in reviving the original spirit of austerity within the order’s Italian houses, which had very much fallen into laxity. Thinking to dissuade the fifteen-year old Antoninus, whom he deemed too frail for the rigors of religious life, he ordered him to wait, and come back when he had memorized the Decretals of Gratian, the canon law text book of the Middle Ages. A year later, the boy returned, having duly memorized the massive tome, and after answering several questions about it, was received with no further hesitation.

St Antoninus and Bl. John Dominici, by an anonymous Florentine artist, ca. 1600-30, from the Dominican convent at Fiesole. (Image from Wikimedia Commons by Sailko, CC BY 3.0)

In accordance with Bl. John’s plans, Antoninus was destined for the future founding of a reformed house at Fiesole; when the project was eventually realized, it would also count the Blessed Fra Angelico, who was a great friend of his, among its first members. He also knew at least three other Dominican Blesseds, Lawrence of Ripafratta, Constantius of Fabriano, and Peter Capucci.

The young friar was not only a brilliant scholar, as demonstrated by this episode, but also a natural leader, and within a short time of his priestly ordination, began to occupy one position of governance after another. He served as prior of several houses, including three of the largest, Santa Maria Novella, Santa Maria sopra Minerva in Rome, and San Domenico Maggiore in Naples, bringing the reforming spirit to each of them. In 1436, he helped to found the second Dominican house in his native city, San Marco, together with Fra Angelico, many of whose works are still housed there to this day.

In addition to his work as a preacher and religious reformer, Antoninus was a great scholar of canon law, in an age which valued canonical process within the Church very highly indeed. As such, he was frequently consulted by the Popes; he is believed to have served on the Roman Rota, and by order of Pope Eugenius IV, attended the various sessions of the Ecumenical Council of Florence. In 1446, when the archbishop of his native city died, he was appointed to the office, very much against his will; like so many other saintly bishops (Gregory the Great, for example) he first attempted to hide, in his case, by fleeing to the island of Sardinia. Having been discovered, he pleaded to the Pope that he was too physically weak for the job, but Eugenius would not be put off, and finally forced him to accept episcopal consecration by threatening to excommunicate him for disobedience if he did not.

Proving the truth of the common maxim that power is best given to those who don’t want it, Antoninus was an exemplary bishop in every way, a father to the poor, and so well regarded for his prudence and wise judgment that he was popularly known as “Antoninus of Counsels.” The year after his appointment, he was summoned to Rome to administer the last Sacraments to the Pope, who died in his arms. Eugenius’ successor, Nicholas V, forbade any appeal to be made to Rome against his decisions; Pius II appointed him to a commission for the reform of the Roman courts, and the Florentine Republic made him one of its ambassadors on various occasions. (Pictured right - a statue of St Antoninus on the façade of Florence cathedral; image from Wikipedia by Sailko, CC BY 3.0)

Despite the endless cares which fall upon a man in his position, he was also assiduous in his prayer life, frequently celebrating Mass and preaching, reciting the full Divine Office (in an age when dispensations were easily granted to busy prelates), and often attending it in choir at the cathedral. He also found time to write an important treatise on moral theology, a widely-circulated manual for confessors, a chronicle of world history, and the biography of John Dominici. It was a common thing for prelates of wealthy sees (and Florence was very wealthy indeed) to keep a large stable for the travels of their retinues, but Antoninus had only one mule, which he sold several times to raise money for the poor; just as often, benefactors would buy it back and return it to him.

In the later part of his time as archbishop, Florence suffered from a series of disasters – a year-long outbreak of plague, followed by famine, and then, in 1453-55, a series of earthquakes. Through all of this, Antoninus was boundless in his charitable expenditures and his personal efforts to care for the victims, leading many others to do the same by his example. Cosimo de’ Medici, who had contributed a good deal of the money to found San Marco, said of him “Our city has experienced all sorts of misfortunes: fire, earthquake, drought, plague, seditions, plots. I believe it would today be nothing but a mass of ruins without the prayers of our holy archbishop.”

The Alms of St Antoninus, by Lorenzo Lotto, 1542; from the Dominican church in Venice, Ss John and Paul. (Public domain image from Wikimedia Commons.)

Antoninus died on May 2 of 1455, and his funeral was attended by Pope Pius II in person. He was canonized by Pope Adrian VI (1522-23) as a model reformer in an age very much in need of reform, a fact which Adrian was the first Pope to really grasp. (He might well have achieved on a larger scale within the Church some of what Antoninus achieved within his order and city, had he not died less than two years into his reign, the last non-Italian Pope before John Paul II). In 1559, his body was discovered to be incorrupt, and translated to the chapel where it still rests in the church of San Marco in Florence.

Prayers for Pope Leo

We are glad to share this image from Pax inter Spinas, the printing house of the Monastère Saint-Benoît in Brignole, France, with the traditional prayers for the Pope said at Benediction and other occasions, and the name of the newly elected Leo XIV added in its proper place to the “Oremus pro Pontifice nostro” and in the collect.

I make bold to share the words of His Eminence Raymond Leo Cardinal Burke, who urges us “to pray fervently for Pope Leo XIV that Our Lord, through the intercession of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Saint Peter the Apostle, and Pope Saint Leo the Great, will grant him abundant wisdom, strength, and courage to do all that Our Lord is asking of Him in these tumultuous times.”

I also thought our readers might like to see this, the notarial certificate by which Cardinal Prevost’s acceptance of his election and choice of papal name are formally recorded, signed by the papal master of ceremonies, Abp Diego Ravelli, the Vice-Camerlengo, Bp Ilson de Jesus Montanari, and two of the other masters of ceremonies, Marco Agostini and Massimiliano Boiardi.

 

The Suscipe Sancta Trinitas

Lost in Translation #125

After the lavabo, the priest goes to the middle of the altar, looks up to Heaven, and, bowing, asks the Triune God to receive his entire offering:

Súscipe, sancta Trínitas, hanc oblatiónem, quam tibi offérimus ob memoriam passiónis, resurrectiónis, et ascensiónis Jesu Christi, Dómini nostri, et in honórem beátae Maríae semper Vírginis, et beáti Joannis Baptistae, et sanctórum Apostolórum Petri et Pauli, et istórum, et omnium sanctórum: ut illis proficiat ad honórem, nobis autem ad salútem: et illi pro nobis intercédere dignentur in caelis, quorum memoriam ágimus in terris. Per eundem Christum Dóminum nostrum. Amen.

Which I translate as:

Receive, O holy Trinity, this oblation which we make to Thee in memory of the Passion, Resurrection and Ascension of our Lord Jesus Christ, and in honor of Blessed Mary ever Virgin, blessed John the Baptist, the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, these Saints of yours here, and all the Saints, that there may be an increase of honor for them and of salvation for us, and may they deign to intercede for us in Heaven, whose memory we celebrate on earth. Through the same Christ our Lord. Amen.

The formula is not unique. The so-called Gallican rite had several prayers beginning with Suscipe sancta Trinitas hanc oblationem, quam tibi offerimus, and continuing with any number of petitions, such as the wellbeing of the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of the Franks. The prayer that made it into the 1570/1962 Missal first appeared in the Monte Cassino region of Italy around the eleventh century and was unaccompanied by similar prayers. [1]

By appearing without prayers of the same formula, and by following the single offerings of bread, wine, incense, and worshippers, the Suscipe Sancta Trinitas in the traditional Roman Missal serves several purposes.

First, it is a fitting Trinitarian capstone to the earlier Offertory prayers. The Suscipe Sancte Pater addresses the Father, the Deus qui humanae praises the Son, and the Veni Sanctificator invokes the Holy Spirit. And now, by way of summary, the priest speaks to all three Divine Persons at the same time.

Second, the Suscipe Sancte Pater is a remarkably succinct and eloquent summary of the theology of Eucharistic sacrifice. The Mass re-presents not the Last Supper but the Paschal Mystery, the Passion [and Death], Resurrection, and Ascension of our Lord Jesus Christ. The latter event, which brings the fruits of the Resurrection into Heaven, is often overlooked as an integral part of the Paschal Mystery.

What is more, every Mass honors the shining stars of Christ’s Mystical Body, the Blessed Virgin Mary and all the Saints. The prayer’s list of Saints roughly follows that of the Confiteor with two exceptions. First, Michael is not mentioned, perhaps because he has just received a shout-out in the prayer Per intercessionem. Second, the Saints whose relics are in the altar are remembered with the word et istorum, which we translate “these Saints of yours here” (for more on the Latin pronoun iste, see here). This is the second and final time that these Saints are invoked, the first being when the priest kisses the altar at the beginning of Mass. It is appropriate that they are remember here, soon before the Consecration, for only the bones of martyrs were put in altars, and the martyrs, by virtue of their blood being shed for Christ, have a special affinity to the sacrifice of the Cross. There was even a sort of urban legend in the early Church that every martyr, male and female, became an honorary priest by virtue of their shed blood.

Third, the prayer expresses the intended effect of every Mass: to increase the honor of the Saints and the salvation of the Church militant, and it concludes with a special prayer for their intercession. It is perhaps surprising to modern ears to hear how much both the Bible and traditional liturgy seem to care about honor, but the worshipping community of believers derives special joy from giving honor and glory to God and His friends.

Finally, the priest began the Lavabo by stating that he will walk among the innocent. Here, surrounded by the holy cloud of witnesses he has invoked, he may be said to be fulfilling that prediction.

Note

[1] Jungmann, vol.2, 46 and 49, n. 35.

Pope Leo XIV

Today, the Sacred College of Cardinals elected His Eminence Robert Cardinal Prevost, hitherto Prefect of the Dicastery for Bishops, as the 267th Pope and bishop of Rome; His Holiness has taken the name Leo XIV. He is the first American Pope, a native of Chicago, Illinois; he became a member of the Order of St Augustine in 1977, and served as the superior general from 2001-13. He then served as apostolic administrator and bishop in the see of Chiclayo in Peru, until his appointment to the Curia.

Let us pray that the new pope will be a good and loving shepherd to all the flock of Christ, and that he will be able to fulfill his duty as pastor of the universal Church with wisdom and fidelity.

Deus, omnium fidelium pastor et rector, fámulum tuum Leónem, quem pastórem Ecclesiae tuae praeesse voluisti, propitius réspice: da ei, quǽsumus, verbo et exemplo, quibus praeest, profícere; ut ad vitam, una cum grege sibi crédito, perveniat sempiternam. Per Christum, Dóminum nostrum. R. Amen.

O God, shepherd and ruler of all the faithful, look mercifully upon Thy servant Leo, whom Thou hast willed to rule over Thy Church as its shepherd; grant him, we ask, to advance in the word and example by which he ruleth, that together with the flock entrusted to him, he may come to everlasting life. Through Christ, our Lord. Amen. (The votive collect for the Pope.)

The Basilica of St Victor in Milan

The church of Milan today celebrates the feast of the martyr St Victor, a Christian soldier from the Roman province of Africa, who was killed in the first year of the persecution of Diocletian, 303 AD, while serving at Milan under the Emperor Maximian. He is usually called “Maurus - the Moor” to distinguish him from the innumerable other Saints called Victor, which was a very common name in the Roman world. St Mirocles, bishop of the city at the time of the Edict of Milan, originally buried the martyr in a small basilica just outside the city walls; in the later part of the 4th century, St Ambrose translated the relics to a chapel built for that purpose, within the basilica where he himself was later buried, and which is now named for him. (This chapel, San Vittore in Ciel d’Oro, contains the famous mosaic portrait of St Ambrose.) In the 9th century, the relics were returned to the original basilica, known as St Victor ‘ad corpus’, and have remained there ever since; they were officially recognized as authentic by the Bl. Schuster in 1941. In the mid-16th century, the church was completely rebuilt by the Olivetan monks who then had charge of it. Once again, our thanks to Nicola for sharing his pictures of one of the many beautiful churches of his city.

The architect Galeazzo Alessi, who had charge of the rebuilding project, intended to build a portico in front, but this was never realized, leaving the upper and lower parts of the façade with this rather disjointed appearance.

The main altar, which contains the relics of St Victor, was consecrated by St Charles Borromeo in 1576, when the rebuilding of the church was almost completed.

The main altar seen from behind, in the monastic choir. (The Olivetans were expelled from the church in 1805, during the Napoleonic suppression of religious houses; it is now a parish.)

The cupola is decorated with figures of the four Evangelists by Daniele Crespi (1598-1630) in the pendentives; eight Sybils by Gugliemo Caccia, known as “Il Monclavo” (1568-1625), in the drum, and eighty Angels in the dome itself, also by Caccia.

In the ceiling of the choir, The Coronation of the Virgin, by Ercole Procaccini the Younger (1605-75.)

The tabernacle of the main altar.

Continue Reading this Article. . .

The Solemnity of St Joseph, Patron of the Universal Church 2025

From the Encyclical Quamquam pluries of Pope Leo XIII on St Joseph, issued on the feast of the Assumption in 1889. It is providential that the conclave to elect a new pope should begin on this important solemnity; let us remember to count Joseph especially among the Saints to whom we address our prayers for a good outcome of this election.

The special reasons for which St Joseph is held to be Patron of the Church, and for the sake of which the Church has such great confidence in his protection and patronage, are that he was the spouse of Mary, and was reputed the father of Jesus Christ. From this come forth all his dignity, grace, holiness and glory. Certainly, the dignity of the Mother of God is so exalted that nothing can be greater. But nevertheless, since the bond of marriage united Joseph to the most blessed Virgin, there is no doubt but that he attained as no other ever has to that most eminent dignity by which the Mother of God far surpasses all other creatures.

The Holy Family, by Francisco de Zurbarán (1598-1664), 1659, now in the Szépművészeti Múzeum in Budapest.

For marriage is the most intimate of all unions, which by its nature brings with it the sharing of goods between the spouses. Therefore, if God gave Joseph to the Virgin as Her spouse, He certainly gave Her not only Her life’s companion, the witness of Her virginity, the protector of Her honour, but also one who shared in Her sublime dignity by virtue of the conjugal bond. Likewise, he alone stands out among all men with the most august dignity, since he was by the divine counsel the guardian of the Son of God, and among men reputed to be His father. From this, it came about that the Word of God was duly subject to Joseph, obeyed him, and rendered to him all the honor which children must render to their parents. Moreover, from this two-fold dignity followed the duties which nature has laid upon the head of families, so that Joseph became the guardian, the administrator, and defender of the divine house whose head he was. …

St Joseph as Patron of the Catholic Church; this image was used as the header of his feast under that title in liturgical books printed by the German company Frideric Pustet, from the later 19th to mid 20th century. The Papal crests of Popes Bl. Pius IX and Leo XIII are seen to either side of St Peter’s Basilica.

Now the divine house which Joseph ruled with the authority of a father, contained within itself the beginnings of the new-born Church. The most holy Virgin, as the Mother of Jesus Christ, is the mother of all Christians, since She bore them on Mount Calvary amid the dying torments of the Redeemer; and Jesus Christ is, in a manner, the first-born among Christians, who by adoption and the Redemption are His brothers. For these reasons, the most blessed Patriarch looks upon the multitude of Christians who make up the Church as entrusted specially to himself; this innumerable family, spread over all the earth, and over which, because he is the spouse of Mary and the Father of Jesus Christ, he holds, as it were, the authority of a father. It is therefore suitable and especially worthy that, just once as the Blessed Joseph was wont in most holy fashion to protect the family at Nazareth and provide for all its needs, so now he should protect and defend the Church of Christ with his heavenly patronage.

Why the Traditional Mass Should Remain In Latin

In spite of attempts to suppress it, the traditional Latin Mass is here to stay. It may not be as widespread as it was in the halcyon days of Summorum Pontificum, but neither is it exactly hidden under a bushel, as the early Christians were during the Roman persecutions. In many cites, gigantic parishes run by former Ecclesia Dei institutes are packed with faithful every Sunday. No, this is not going away; and the sooner a future pope comes to terms with the reality on the ground, the better off we’ll all be.

Unfortunately, due to the way the internet encourages the spontaneous expression of feelings and ideas (or some mixture of the two), a lot of premature and undercooked opinions tend to be expressed. One of the most frequent proposals I see being floated is this one: “Wouldn’t it be just grand if we could have the TLM in the vernacular? This would kill two birds with one stone: We get the traditional liturgy, but without the language barrier! Everyone would flock to it and the breach between old and new could be healed at last!” Even prominent figures among the Oratorians are not hesitate about expressing this opinion.

An NLM reader once wrote to me:

I have read certain articles of yours in which you treat of the question of introducing the vernacular into the traditional rites in a limited fashion and come out decidedly against it. I myself prefer an entirely Latin liturgy in all respects, lessons included—indeed my daughter’s (old rite) baptism was entirely in Latin, including the godparents’ responses. The only vernacular was the Pater and Credo in the procession to the sanctuary (per custom). I think that there is a certain dissonance in “mixing” languages liturgically, with the obvious exceptions of the Greek Kyrie and various Hebrew words, especially if I am saying “and with your spirit” at one point and “et cum spiritu tuo” at another point. There is an imbalance there that I can’t precisely explain.
       Yet, I was reading Dobszay’s treatment of the issue in which he argues that the introduction of certain vernacular elements alongside, not in place of, the Latin would be highly beneficial for the simple reason that the entirely Latin liturgy is, truly, a stumbling block for many who are otherwise friendly to the tradition. Yes, I understand that man is to be formed into the image of the liturgy, and not vice versa—St. Benedict, after all, urges ut mens concordet voci—that the mind harmonize with the voice—which, in addition to sounding “quaint,” actually is quite radical when compared to the modern emphasis on “authenticity” (wrongly identified with virtual formlessness). And, with the necessary reservations, viz. the Orations, Canon, and silent prayers remaining in Latin, Dobszay nevertheless suggests the possibility of not only the lessons, but also at times the proper chants and Mass ordinary being authorized in a hieratic vernacular. (And for this purpose, let us assume that the principal parish Mass would be required to be fully in Latin, so the totally-Latin liturgy would still play a truly primary role in the Church’s liturgical life.)
       Don’t misunderstand me: I am not saying that the introduction of the vernacular is “necessary” from a liturgical standpoint. But I am haunted by Dobszay’s point that a moderate introduction of the occasional hieratic vernacular would serve to de-ghettoize the classical Roman liturgy and thereby increase its appeal. In this way, the ancient heritage would enter the ecclesial mainstream instead of remaining on the relative margins.
       To put it bluntly: is an unbending adherence to the exclusive use of Latin semper et ubique in the liturgy ultimately wise, if the price to pay is that the authentic tradition (form and content) remains a marginalized minority? Would not a moderate use of a hieratic vernacular be a small price to pay for the greater expansion of the Roman heritage? Is this not a legitimate instance of the perfect being the enemy of the good? Moderate vernacular usage for the lessons seems to be one of those things that, for better or worse, we are stuck with permanently, and I worry that we might lose too many lives battling on this hill while losing the mountain.

I remain unconvinced. Just as Marshall McLuhan maintained that bringing microphones into churches would undermine the numinous character of the liturgy (and how right he was), I am equally convinced that de-Latinization would spell the end of the Roman rite in its distinctive character, as much as abolishing icons would do to the Byzantine liturgy. Here I would like to offer some reasons why I think this.

A Fundamental Argument

Among the Eastern Christian churches, we find considerable linguistic diversity, which has led in some cases to the development of sacral languages and in others to almost total vernacularization. In the Western church, however, we find an impressive and almost monolithic unity: Latin is the language par excellence for all Western rites and uses.

Now, this monumental linguistic unity is either the work of Divine Providence and of the Holy Spirit, or a huge error, deviation, and problem to be overcome. I maintain that the only acceptable Roman Catholic mentality is the former; the latter leads necessarily to the overthrowing of all liturgical standards: if not even Latin is safe, then neither is ad orientem, communion under one kind, plainchant and polyphony, a proleptic Offertory, etc.

And, in point of fact, this is exactly what we saw in the liturgical reform, whose proponents and implementers tended to reject all of those so-called “medieval” features (even though many are properly ancient).

An Aesthetic Argument

Martin Mosebach maintains that the use of Latin is primarily responsible for the creation of a sacral atmosphere from start to finish in the traditional Mass. The moment it begins, one knows one is in a different “place,” one is moving on a different level; the workaday world has been left behind, and one is entering the divine domain. The vernacular, no matter how well translated, or how archaic in sound, does not have this requisite otherness. As Michael Fiedrowicz says, the Latin reminds us that we are seeking something else in worship than what we find everywhere else.

As for alternating between Latin and vernacular, it is no more coherent than a man with a tuxedo jacket on top and blue jeans on the bottom.

A Pastoral Argument

There is already an insidious tendency for Catholics to splinter into factions the moment someone decides to move the flowers above the altar one inch to the left or the right. We are all rather high-strung at this point, and, in addition to the need to relax a bit, we also need to supply as few incentives for division as possible. Changing the language that has been part and parcel of the liturgy for over 1,600 years would be a nuclear bomb in that regard: instantly, there would be all-Latin communities and mixed-language communities. Indeed, we already have that, because of the “two forms”; the last thing we need is further balkanization.

Moreover, use of the vernacular, so far from uniting people who speak a common language, instantly segregates the faithful into categories. Some would prefer an archaic translation such as the Douay-Rheims; others would agitate for the Revised Standard Version or (God forbid) the New American Bible. And if the Vatican or the USCCB got involved, it would all go south in five minutes. With Latin, no one can complain: we are using the language that all the saints before us prayed with. Each person can then pick up whatever hand missal suits him best.

One difficulty with modern languages is that they do not possess sufficient “alterity” and “elevation” to serve as liturgical languages. The traditional Anglicans and the Ordinariates use Elizabethan English, which I’m sure sounded normal back in Shakespeare’s day but now sounds formal, elevated, and a little strange. To have liturgy in the vernacular requires a sacral register, which, it seems, today’s Church is incapable of producing. Moreover, the Byzantine Divine Liturgy is not a good example because it achieves its effects in a totally different way, through waves and waves of poetic speech and singing. The Roman liturgy is austere and slender; much of its affective power depends on Latin, silence, and chant—the three elements of the sonic iconostasis.

Additional Theological Arguments

In general, we overestimate the primacy of verbal comprehension. It is often non-verbal signs and behaviors that affect us more deeply. I think this is above all true for acquiring the spirit of reverence and prayer at liturgy.

As people know from experience, there are many ways to participate in a Latin liturgy. It takes many years to grasp it—which is appropriate for the greatest mystery on earth. One starts with simple steps, like a “child’s missal,” and eventually works up to an adult’s missal with all the translations—and finally, one knows it so well that one can put aside the missal and simply yield oneself to the liturgy. This can happen more easily with the Tridentine rite because it has fewer options and fewer texts that become familiar over time. It takes a long time to enter fully into it, and it ought to be this way.

One learns to swim by starting in the shallow end and eventually venturing into the deep end. The traditional liturgy in its richness of symbolism, its pageantry of ceremony, its beautiful musical patrimony, offers many “handles” to grab on to. I remember my son being fascinating with the coordinated movements of the servers in their sacred choreography. Another little boy I know loves watching the thurifer handle the thurible, with the hot coals and clouds of smoke. One does not have to be a genius to appreciate the Latin Mass; one simply has to use the eyes in one’s head, the ears, the nostrils; one watches, listens, ponders, and prays. The best thing we can do at Mass is to pray earnestly; this is worth more than any amount of rational understanding.

The sacral language of the Mass, its totally untranslatable poetry, deserves to be left intact. We laity have many ways of accessing its meaning, including: learning Latin; following in a missal (where the translation doesn’t have to bear the weight of being the actual rite that is offered); or just watching and absorbing and praying in our own words inspired by the liturgy.

The key is letting the rich ceremonies of the Mass themselves be the first message it conveys. The text is not absolute and exclusive, nor is it primary from the point of view of lay participation. It is something one grows into over time. We are so impatient nowadays: we want an “instant fix.” Well, it took God several thousand years to prepare humanity for the Incarnation, and it took him 1,500 years to bring the Roman rite to perfection among us. He’s apparently not in a huge rush to get things over and done with, and neither should we be. Certainly, our lives are short, but not usually so short that we cannot acquire the habit proper to the rite.

C. du Plessis d’Argentré writes:

It is perfectly clear that the benefit of the liturgical prayer consists not only in the understanding of the words; it is a dangerous error to think that vocal prayer serves only to educate the intellect. On the contrary, such prayer mainly contributes to inflame the affections, so that the worshipper, rising up to God with a pious and devout heart, will be edified, and, obtaining his wishes, he will not be frustrated in his intentions; and in addition, the intellect acquires illumination together with other useful or necessary things, all of which benefits are far more abundant than the understanding of the words alone, which does not achieve much advantage without the arousal of the affection for God. (Collectio iudiciorum de novis erroribus II [Paris: Cailleau, 1728], 62, quoted in Guéranger, Institutions liturgiques III, 164)

Musical Inheritance

With all due respect to the great Prof. Dobszay, vernacular plainchant is an ugly duckling compared to its Latin paradigm. It can be done decently, but it remains rather awkward. No two languages function the same, and the peculiar sound of each is very different. Latin and chant are like a body-soul composite. Again, Byzantine chant tends to work better, because—and I intend no offense to our Eastern brethren—it is generally quite a bit simpler and plainer than Gregorian chant. It is more in the nature of harmonized psalm tones that can suit any language. Latin chant, on the other hand, is a highly refined musical form that grew up for a thousand years with its Latin text.

Composer Mark Nowakowski observed in an interview:

Latin is a language I keep returning to in my writing not only because it is still the Church’s language, but also because it is a singularly beautiful language. It is inherently sing-able and seems to have the necessary structure and gravitas to bear the full weight of both liturgical solemnity and spiritual contemplation. Let’s be honest: “Lamb of God, you take away the sins of the world” is just not as beautiful or sing-able as “Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi…” – and we have an entire failed post-conciliar repertoire to prove it. And now that composers are in an age where English settings are still the Church standard, they mostly want to compose in Latin! That should speak for itself.

False Centrality

Every time someone proposes translating the Latin Mass, they immediately add: “But of course the principal Mass would remain in Latin,” or “Naturally, for those who love Latin, it would still be available.”

I think this is a false hope.

However much better an usus antiquior in the vernacular would be than an usus recentior in Latin, ultimately I fear that such a move would begin a slow-motion marginalization of Latin and chant, with almost no hope of their recover. Once people are convinced that they “ought” to understand this or that part of the liturgy immediately, good luck trying to have a solemn Mass where that’s not the operative assumption. These treasures would become like animal or plant species that are driven out of their native environment by more aggressive foreign organisms introduced into the ecosystem.

Perhaps the most decisive observation is that the Latin texts have a dense web of intraliturgical and extraliturgical associations that no vernacular, regardless of its refinement, could carry—at least not without having its own arc of 2,000 years of development. I do not wish to sound like I am defending a sort of “magical” property of Latin, but I do think it’s worth pondering why exorcists consistently report more success when they use the old rites in Latin.

Priorities

Finally, can we not say that a religion that took itself seriously would ask its members to study it seriously? Serious Jews ask their boys to learn Hebrew; serious Moslems ask them to learn classical Arabic; the Copts figure out Egyptian; the Russians must get down some Slavonic; and so forth. The Catholic Church will become stronger again when it actually demands more of its people than it currently does (the realm of fasting is perhaps the most obvious place to begin).

There are thousands of Catholic schools that could be teaching Latin. They do not, because it has been deemed of little or no worth. This ignorance, skepticism, or rejection of our tradition is the real problem; this is the attitude that has to change. Otherwise, we are trying to cram a beautiful liturgy into people who could care less whether it is high, low, right, wrong, old, new, Latin, or English.

In short: Latin’s not some outlying hill, remote from the fortress, but part of the foundation rock in the mountain fastness we are defending.